Whilst influenza B causes periodic/yearly epidemics but not pandemics, influenza C viruses only cause relatively infrequent mild respiratory problems (Taubenberger and Morens, 2008). Although less frequent, tropical regions too suffer influenza epidemics, these generally coinciding with the rainy season (Cox and Subbarao, 2000; Biggerstaff et al., 2014). Although reported less, influenza B has also been associated with severe bacterial co/secondary infection (Finelli et al., 2008; Aebi et al., 2010). Confusion or changes in mental awareness (in adults age 65 and older) Cough, which may produce phlegm. S. pneumoniae again caused minor illness with a 100% survival rate. Kobasa D., Jones S. M., Shinya K., Kash J. C., Copps J., Ebihara H., et al. Alternatively, we must consider that as M. catarrhalis was not considered a pathogen it was therefore missed or not commented upon prior to the 1980s. Impact of the 2009 influenza pandemic on pneumococcal pneumonia hospitalizations in the United States. Estimates of the US health impact of influenza. Co-infection also results in a synergistic increase in type II IFN (IFN) when compared to individual infection of influenza or S. pneumoniae, CXCL10 (aka IFN-induced protein 10/IP-10) is secreted in response. McNeely D. J., Kitchens C. S., Kluge R. M. (1976). Facilitated expansion of pneumococcal colonization from the nose to the lower respiratory tract in mice preinfected with influenza virus. A new pneumococcal serotype, 11E, has a variably inactivated wcjE gene. One group of rats were naive and the other had previously been dosed with influenza. Disruption of allosteric response as an unprecedented mechanism of resistance to antibiotics. de Jong M. D., Simmons C. P., Thanh T. T., Hien V. M., Smith G. J., Chau T. N., et al. Tashiro M., Ciborowski P., Reinacher M., Pulverer G., Klenk H. D., Rott R. (1987). (2010) showed that mice infected with low doses of influenza, low doses of S. aureus and high doses of S. aureus were able to survive. (2014). Fatal outcome of human influenza A (H5N1) is associated with high viral load and hypercytokinemia. Tong S. Y., Davis J. S., Eichenberger E., Holland T. L., Fowler V. G., Jr., et al. Benefits of influenza vaccination for low-, intermediate-, and high-risk senior citizens. Fatigue. Conversely, co-infection caused bronchial necrosis, bronchial inflammation and bronchitis within the same time period or less, and led to further complication such as epithelial erosion (Lee L.N. Effect of experimental influenza A virus infection on isolation of. Design: Retrospective cohort study. Influenza viruses differ in their propensity to. Influenza A virus infection predisposes hosts to secondary infection with different. Matsuzaki Y., Sugawara K., Mizuta K., Tsuchiya E., Muraki Y., Hongo S., et al. Although not the most common bacteria found, S. pneumoniae was the most strongly associated with severe disease (Palacios et al., 2009). IFN-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10; CXCL10)-deficient mice reveal a role for IP-10 in effector T cell generation and trafficking. Post-mortems found S. pneumoniae in the lungs of 44% and heart blood of 33% (Hall et al., 1918; Brundage, 2006). Pneumonia is a lung infection that's caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. When it comes to treatments, alleviating the symptoms of influenza, COVID-19 or flu-like illness through time-worn techniques good hydration, hot showers for congestion, over the counter medicines like ibuprofen for body aches can help. Pneumonia Management and Prevention Guidelines | CDC Recent human influenza A (H1N1) viruses are closely related genetically to strains isolated in 1950. "We see a tremendous rise in respiratory infections in that same time frame particularly when (and if) school is back in session, so there is an increase in illnesses circulating. Influenza infection also results in increased mucus production, further increasing the amount of metabolite available for S. pneumoniae. Detailed below and in Table Table11 we have sought to describe some of the most significant influenza pandemics since the late 1800s to highlight the potential impact of influenza with respect to associations with bacterial infection. Abdullahi O., Nyiro J., Lewa P., Slack M., Scott J. A common complication of respiratory viral disease can be secondary bacterial infection. For older adults and people with a . Bacterial pneumonia during the Hong Kong influenza epidemic of 1968-1969. , The pneumonias and other infections of the respiratory tract accompanying influenza and measles. (2016). No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Robinson et al. Wyde P. R., Six H. R., Ambrose M. W., Throop B. J. The site is secure. The low pH in the endosome causes a conformational change to the HA allowing it to be cleaved, an important step in penetrating into the host cell. Critically ill children during the 2009-2010 influenza pandemic in the United States. Additionally, the effect of viral prevention methods further supports the idea of viruses predisposing a host to secondary bacterial infection (Peltola and McCullers, 2004; Lee et al., 2008). Gupta R. K., George R., Nguyen-Van-Tam J. S. (2008). (2011). Dormitzer P. R., Galli G., Castellino F., Golding H., Khurana S., Del Giudice G., et al. Maintaining a polite distance from people roughly six feet can help, using a face mask while in public, and, of course, hand washing, staying home when sick, covering coughs and most important of all - getting vaccinated. In previous pandemics S. pneumoniae has been proposed as the major contributor of mortality and morbidity, however, during this 19681969 Hong Kong and the 1957 Asian influenza pandemic S. aureus clearly had a larger impact. Influenza and S. pneumoniae infections can also lead to synergistic and non-synergistic dysregulation of cytokine responses (Wu et al., 2011). Chronic conditions may increase the risk of influenza complications. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common bacteria found in viral secondary bacterial infections, and is particularly associated with causing high mortality and morbidity during influenza epidemics and pandemics (Brundage, 2006; Joseph et al., 2013). S. pneumoniae is a Gram-positive diplococci and is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia and invasive disease, i.e., sepsis and meningitis worldwide, as well as less severe acute disease such as otitis media (Bridy-Pappas et al., 2005; McCullers et al., 2010). There are similar documented reports from the Netherlands; of the 148 deaths presumed to be from the Asian pandemic influenza strain that were examined fully, 75% presented with bacterial pneumonia of which 15% were positive for S. pneumoniae and 59% were positive for S. aureus (Hers et al., 1958). Elderly people, children under 6 months old, pregnant women, and people with chronic conditions or immunosuppression are at increased risk of complications. The origin of this pandemic is unclear as it appeared in North America, Asia, and Europe at roughly the same time (, Although global death toll estimates vary [between 1.5 million (, The pandemic affected 4050% of people worldwide (, The 1968 Hong Kong pandemic started in July 1968 in Hong Kong and spread to the Southern hemisphere by June 1969 (, This pandemic was caused by a reappearance of H1N1, identical to that of the Spanish flu virus (, By the end of the pandemic it is thought that there were 284,000 deaths worldwide (, In early 2009, an influenza A H1N1 virus outbreak was initially identified in Mexico and then the United States (, Unlike other pandemics and yearly epidemics, during this pandemic it was predominantly children and young adults that were affected, particularly those aged 1222 (. A majority of those deaths due to secondary S. pneumoniae infection (Brundage and Shanks, 2008; Morens et al., 2008). Of these children, 47% had no specific clinical signs or symptoms suggesting pneumonia. The recent epidemiology findings have helped to partially resolve the contribution of different pathogens. B., Miller R. R., et al. Incubation period 2. Jin P., Kong F., Xiao M., Oftadeh S., Zhou F., Liu C., et al. "Unfortunately theres a lot of mis-use of words out there, which can lead to confusion," he says. Pandemics are generally viral in cause. The role of viral, host, and secondary bacterial factors in influenza pathogenesis. (2012). Adenovirus infection enhances in vitro adherence of. Excess deaths attributable to influenza in England and Wales: age at death and certified cause. McCullers J. Gill J. R., Sheng Z. M., Ely S. F., Guinee D. G., Beasley M. B., Suh J., et al. Pneumonia Stages, Their Symptoms, and Condition Management - Healthline in 29% (Brem et al., 1918). (2006) found influenza infection caused lower levels of cytotoxic T cell lymphocytes, which would therefore negatively affect acquired immunity (de Jong et al., 2006; Cunha et al., 2009). More virulent pneumococcal serotypes caused a greater burden of disease in both the co-infected mice and those infected with S. pneumoniae alone. A more recent study shows that there are 4 million cases of disease caused by S. pneumoniae and 22,000 deaths annually in the United States (Huang et al., 2011). Verduin C. M., Hol C., Fleer A., van Dijk H., van Belkum A. Other studies have intranasally inoculated ferrets with influenza, finding prior viral infection increases colonization and adherence of S. aureus (Sanford and Ramsay, 1987). This high mutation rate and the emergence of new strains can also make vaccine development and policy difficult to plan and carry out. (1958). (2010). In 1969, England and Wales saw a 55% increase in respiratory deaths, of which co/secondary bacterial infection was shown to be a major contributor (Tillett et al., 1983). Nakajima K., Desselberger U., Palese P. (1978). It is considered the most devastating influenza pandemic ever recorded, infecting 50% of the worlds population and resulting in approximately 4050 million deaths worldwide. A majority showed evidence of influenza A infection; 27% of those had co/secondary infection of S. aureus (which had a 47% death rate), 15% S. pneumoniae and 4% H. influenzae, although this is likely to be an underestimation as many patients had already started taking antibiotics (Robertson et al., 1958). Summary report on the Asian influenza epidemic in Japan, 1957. Unlike other pandemics and yearly epidemics, during this pandemic it was predominantly children and young adults that were affected, particularly those aged 1222 (Gill et al., 2010). (2011). Influenza is a major cause of epidemic and pandemic infection. M. catarrhalis has been highlighted as a frequent source of co-infection for influenza since the early 1980s (Klein et al., 2016). Fainstein V., Musher D. M., Cate T. R. (1980). Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. (2012). Wu et al. Respiratory viruses can linger on surfaces grocery cart handles, door knobs, even the office coffee pot. Why is coinfection with influenza virus and bacteria so difficult to control? Influenza tends to last within a community for eight to nine weeks meaning approximately 90 percent of cases will occur during that time frame. Primary Influenza Virus Pneumonia. Pneumococcal vaccines for children: a global public health priority. Beyond the cut hunter: a historical epidemiology of HIV beginnings in central africa. Schwarzmann S. W., Adler J. L., Sullivan R. J., Jr., Marine W. M. (1971). This evolution is influenced by a range of anthropogenic factors, which include population expansion, changing land use and habitat destruction, selective pressures of increased antimicrobial usage, vaccination, global trade and travel (Daszak, 2012; Karesh et al., 2012; Morse et al., 2012). We have therefore considered the importance of this. Bacterial adherence to the upper respiratory tract of ferrets infected with influenza A virus. Since the 1800s these pandemics have arisen from a number of countries, spreading across the globe (Figure Figure11). The frequency of influenza and bacterial coinfection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ", Influenza vaccination is of critical importance this year as we combat the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. 22 Patients with primary influenza pneumonia accounted for 18% of those admitted to hospitals with evidence of lower respiratory complications of influenza. Hong kong influenza: clinical, microbiologic, and pathologic features in 127 cases. PDF Antibiotic Treatment Guidelines for Pneumonia in Pediatric Patients Interactions between the microbiota and the immune system. Current estimates are that 60 percent of people with SARS-CoV-2 may not have significant symptoms. Further lung tissue from fatalities of this pandemic were re-examined in 1919; S. pyogenes longus was found in 36% of cases, S. pneumoniae in 29% of cases and H. influenzae in 25% (Abrahams et al., 1919; Brundage, 2006). Petersdorf R. G., Fusco J. J., Harter D. H., Albrink W. S. (1959). Multiprotein inflammasomes are responsible for IL-1 production in response to infection and drive tissue inflammation. (2008). Discovery of a new capsular serotype (6C) within serogroup 6 of. (2009) examined nasopharyngeal swab samples from almost 200 cases of pandemic influenza. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Clade 2.3.4.4b Virus in Heart failure Hypertensive heart disease Pulmonary heart disease Heart valve disorders The United Kingdom encountered four waves of disease and it is thought that at least one third of the adult population in England and Ireland suffered at least one bout of disease (, Caused 4050 million deaths worldwide. Bacteraemia was observed in 5% of admissions, for which S. aureus was the main cause (Randolph et al., 2011). Influenza A is the fastest to evolve, at a rate 23 times faster than B, whilst C is the slowest (Yamashita et al., 1988). What are opportunistic infections? Influenza | Nature Reviews Disease Primers Primary influenza viral . A number of viral infections (including infection from influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus and human metapneumovirus) can be complicated by co/secondary infection by a variety of bacteria including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus. Jacoby P., Watson K., Bowman J., Taylor A., Riley T. V., Smith D. W., et al. Alternatively maybe PCR detects bacteria that may have been out grown/not shown on a culture plate? Influenza infections and successive S. pneumoniae infections result is a time and dose dependent change in the host dendritic cells which produces enhanced inflammation. For instance, influenza A is now known to have 18 subtypes of HA and 11 subtypes of NA (Li et al., 2012; Tong et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2014). Johnson M. A., Drew W. L., Roberts M. (1981). All grants and honoraria are paid into accounts within the University of Southampton, or to independent charities. Necrotising pneumonia is highly associated with either the presence of Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) or prior/co influenza infection (DeLeo and Musser, 2010). Immunosuppression is a risk factor for bacterial coinfection in influenza, and the epidemiology of coinfection has changed over the y (1977), who dosed two groups of rats intranasally with H. influenzae with the intention of giving them meningitis. This study highlights how quickly co/secondary bacterial infection can become invasive particularly in at risk groups such as young children or the elderly. Ecology of zoonoses: natural and unnatural histories. The 1918 Spanish influenza:integrating history and biology. Inflammation causes tissue damage, revealing more attachment sites for increased/developed bacterial infection. What Is The Connection Between Influenza and Pneumonia? Pneumonia - What Is Pneumonia? | NHLBI, NIH Up to 75% of those infected with influenza that go on to acquire pneumonia, are confirmed to have bacterial co-infection (Zambon, 2001). Influenza viruses infect respiratory epithelial cells and can themselves cause diffuse pulmonary infiltrates and severe hypoxia, but concomitant or secondary bacterial pneumonia is a much more frequent complication of influenza. It ranges from mild to severe. Hament J.-M., Kimpen J. L. L., Fleer A., Wolfs T. F. W. (1999). In another study of vulnerable and critically ill children in a pediatric intensive care unit in the United States, 51% of those with influenza infection had bacterial co/secondary infection. Bucior I., Pielage J. F., Engel J. N. (2012). Secondary bacterial infections in influenza virus infection pathogenesis. Sharma-Chawla N., Sender V., Kershaw O., Gruber A. D., Volckmar J., Henriques-Normark B., et al. Long-term effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on nasopharyngeal colonization by. . Out of 37 autopsies performed, 43% were positive for pure growth of H. influenzae in at least one lobe of the lung. (2008). Grijalva C. G., Griffin M. R., Edwards K. M., Williams J. V., Gil A. I., Verastegui H., et al. (1992). Sore throat, fever, cough must be the flu, right? This reduction is likely to hinder bacterial clearance, hence the increased bacterial load found during co-infection during this study, and results in prolonged inflammatory response increasing morbidity. The sad fact is that we under-utilize influenza vaccine, Temte said. As mentioned previously, HA mediates virion binding to the host cell via sialic acid receptors. If a patient visits the clinic with a fever, cough and sore throat during the peak, theres a good chance it is influenza. "While its important to stay home when you are sick," he says, "the reality is that individuals who haveSARS-CoV-2 or influenza can spread it without actually experiencing significant symptoms.". Of course viral infection doesnt just benefit bacteria; several mechanisms of synergism between viruses and bacteria have been suggested. Host cell death, whether apoptosis, necrosis or pyroptosis, impacts on the severity and outcome of influenza disease in a variety of ways. Influenza infection, particularly pandemic influenza infection, is known to generate an increased inflammation response within the host, as the body works to rapidly deliver immune cells to the site of infection. Studies have shown a 90% reduction of alveolar macrophages in mice within a week of influenza infection, and evidence of necrosis in the remaining macrophages (Robinson et al., 2015). (2010). (2012). Further studies in the United States have reviewed 77 deaths during the period of MayAugust 2009 and found bacterial co-infection in almost 30% of cases; 46% of which were with S. pneumoniae, 9% with S. aureus and 1% with H. influenzae (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009). Weinberger D. M., Simonsen L., Jordan R., Steiner C., Miller M., Viboud C. (2012). Antigenic drift allows the influenza virus to escape immunity acquired through previous exposure or vaccination; thus influenza A causes more epidemics and pandemics than either influenza B or C (Hampson and Mackenzie, 2006; Taubenberger and Morens, 2008). A point of concern is that almost half of the S. aureus were MRSA, and therefore inherently resistant to multiple antibiotics. (1986) found enhanced colonization and adherence of S. pneumoniae to the tracheal cells of mice when they were infected with influenza (Plotkowski et al., 1986). If there is an abrupt onset of symptoms - people go from feeling well to unwell in a matter of minutes to an hour, or if there are fever, chills, cough or sore throat thats a good reason to call into the doctor or other caregiver. The effects of school closures on influenza outbreaks and pandemics: systematic review of simulation studies. Pulmonary clearance and phagocytic cell response to normal pharyngeal flora. Epidemiology, diagnosis, and antimicrobial treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. This cross-species flow can lead to adaptations that result in an increased pathogenicity to susceptible hosts, creating the potential for localized outbreaks or global spread (Murphy, 1998; Karesh et al., 2012; Morse et al., 2012). Furthermore, poor disease outcome has been linked to lost lung repair function and loss of basal epithelial cells, including alveolar epithelial cells; which is associated with increased bacterial attachment and apoptosis (Kash et al., 2011). They increase macrophage activation during innate immunity (Scott et al., 2004) however, during T cell responses to viral infection they have been shown to inhibit bacterial clearance from the respiratory system by macrophages. The virus spreads easily from person to person via aerosol droplets (Hilleman, 2002; Taubenberger and Morens, 2008) and replicates in the upper and lower respiratory tract (Taubenberger and Morens, 2008). In the setting of a pandemic it may therefore have a major public health impact. An official website of the United States government. The co-pathogenesis of influenza viruses with bacteria in the lung - Nature This research work used AMPs as biomarkers to detect viral pneumonia pathogens, for example, Respiratory syncytial virus, Influenza A and B viruses utilizing in silico technologies, such as. Influenza vaccines: challenges and solutions. Pulmonary pathologic findings of fatal 2009 pandemic influenza A/H1N1 viral infections. For example, autopsies from the 1918 pandemic were reviewed and it was found that S. pneumoniae was the most common co-infector, followed by S hemolytic, S. aureus, and H. influenzae. Complicated pneumonia in children - PubMed Blood culture revealed 65% had S. pneumoniae, 2.5% had H. influenzae and 1.3% had S. aureus (Spooner et al., 1919; Brundage, 2006). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Expression of high-level methicillin resistance in. Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus. Pneumonia - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Tesoro High School Sports, Religious Morality In Ethics, Articles A